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- August 1991
-
-
- THE WILL TO SURVIVE
-
- By
-
- Stephen R. Band, Ph.D.
- Special Agent
- Operations Resource and Assessment Unit
- FBI Academy
- and
- I. John Vasquez, M.Ed.
- Special Agent
- Chief, Operations Resource and Assessment Unit
- FBI Academy
-
-
- Shots are fired! One subject is down, and three police
- officers are wounded. Another armed subject appears in the
- doorway, and two of the officers, stunned at the sight of their
- wounds, are unable to defend themselves. But, the third officer
- fights on, firing until the second subject is incapacitated.
-
- This scenario could be an excerpt from a movie, but
- unfortunately, it is all too real. Each day, law enforcement
- officers across the Nation face life-and-death situations. In
- fact, between 1979 and 1988, 841 police officers were
- feloniously killed in scenarios such as this. (1)
-
- Can law enforcement officers encounter a life-threatening,
- violent confrontation and go home at the end of the day? Do
- they have the will to survive and fight on when faced with
- death? The answers to these questions go beyond combat tactics
- and accuracy with a weapon. One element is still missing:
- Survivability--the mental preparation and personal will to
- survive.
-
- The Operations Resource and Assessment Unit (ORAU) at the
- FBI Academy, Quantico, Virginia, conducted a pilot study and
- sought expert opinions in order to identify the human attributes
- associated with survivability. This article will discuss the
- available background research and will review the FBI's
- findings.
-
- BACKGROUND RESEARCH
-
- In the media, astronauts and pilots have often been
- referred to as having "the right stuff"--personality
- characteristics that would aid their survival in critical
- situations. (2) In fact, as part of their ongoing research, the
- National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the
- University of Texas attempted to identify "right stuff"
- personality traits in pilot selection. (3) As a result, the
- following two prominent personality orientations were linked
- with successful pilot behavior under dangerous flying
- conditions: 1) Goal-oriented behavior, and 2) the capacity to
- empathize with others.
-
- Combat psychiatry also offers insight into human
- performance under battle conditions. (4) Research in this area
- has examined the causes and prevention of combat stress reaction
- (CSR) in relation to surviving life-threatening circumstances.
- CSR, sometimes referred to as "battle fatigue," prevents
- soldiers from fighting and may be theoretically viewed as
- behavior that opposes survival.
-
- Further research identified leadership, devotion to duty,
- decisiveness, and perseverance under stress as significant
- attributes. (5) And, in his studies into the area of
- survivability, S.E. Hobfol states, "...counting your losses when
- preserving resources is fatal...." (6) In essence,
- preoccupation with thoughts about loss may negatively affect
- one's capacity to survive a possibly lethal confrontation.
- Thus, merely avoiding thoughts associated with loss may enhance
- survivability.
-
- This concept of preserving resources can be exemplified
- best through the comments of Gunnery Sergeant Carlos Hathcock,
- U.S. Marine Corps (Retired). Hathcock is credited with 93
- confirmed kills as a sniper during two combat tours in South
- Vietnam. (7) A soft-spoken, unassuming man of honor, Hathcock
- compared his behavior just prior to and during an operation as
- isolating himself into an "invisible bubble." This state of
- mind would "block thoughts of physiological needs, home, family,
- etc., except the target." The amount of time in the "bubble,"
- lasting from a few hours to several consecutive days, depended
- not only on the circumstances surrounding his objective but also
- on adjusting to conditions where a trivial mistake could cost
- him his life. (8) As he reflected on his distinguished military
- career, Hathcock also mentioned a number of other attributes he
- considered necessary for survival. Among these were patience,
- discipline, and the ability to concentrate completely on a
- specific task.
-
- THEORY
-
- Cognitive/behavioral psychological theory offers insight
- into the benefits of mentally rehearsing possible reactions to
- life-threatening situations. According to one theory,
- developing a plan of action could enhance one's perception of
- effectiveness, and therefore, affect an officer's ability to
- survive. In fact, as A. Bandura states:
-
- "People who believe they can exercise control over
- potential threats do not conjure up apprehensive cognitions
- and, therefore, are not perturbed by them....those who
- believe they cannot manage potential threats experience
- high levels of stress and anxiety arousal. They tend to
- dwell on their coping deficiencies and view many aspects of
- their environment as fraught with danger. Through some
- inefficacious thought they distress themselves and
- constrain and impair their level of functioning." (9)
-
- A classic example of cognitive rehearsal in law enforcement
- is provided by C.R. Skillen. (10) According to Skillen,
- successful patrol officers imagine the best approach to
- emergencies that could occur during a tour of duty. They then
- decide upon the best and fastest route from one location to
- another, should the need arise. These officers also imagine
- "what if" situations and develop effective responses in case a
- similar confrontation occurs.
-
- This type of cognitive rehearsal activity has proven to be
- effective in relieving fears and in enhancing performance in
- stressful encounters. However, mental preparation can work
- against officers who believe that if shot, they will certainly
- die. When reinforced by appropriate training and one's value
- system, these attributes and behaviors may provide a law
- enforcement officer with the ability to survive a
- life-threatening situation.
-
- FBI'S RESEARCH AND PRELIMINARY FINDINGS
-
- Behavior identified in the background research and
- theoretically linked to survivability was later summarized to
- develop a pilot study questionnaire. The FBI then distributed
- this questionnaire in late 1989 and early 1990 to a broad group
- of Federal, State, and local law enforcement officers attending
- the FBI Academy in Quantico, Virginia. The questionnaire was
- also administered at work or training sites in Illinois and
- California. In all, a total of 207 questionnaires were
- administered and completed.
-
- Questionnaire
-
- The questionnaire asked respondents to rank various
- behaviors and traits, developed from background research. Not
- all the behaviors and traits are associated with law
- enforcement, but every one has been linked to survival. Ranking
- ranged from little or no importance to extremely important. Law
- enforcement officers rated each factor in terms of its overall
- importance for effective performance in a short-term, violent
- law enforcement confrontation. Effective performance was
- defined as a violent confrontation that requires a lawful,
- combative response where the officer continued to function even
- though the final outcome could be death for the officer or
- adversary.
-
- Findings
-
- Analyses of the pilot study data revealed the items listed
- below as those perceived to be most critical to officer
- survival. The items appear in order of importance, except for
- items 3 through 5, which are of equal value.
-
- 1) Self-confidence in performance--The officer's belief
- that a critical task can be performed effectively with a
- high probability of success.
-
- 2) Training--The officer's belief that prior training has
- been effective, and if applied, will increase the
- possibility of survival in deadly confrontations.
-
- 3) Effectiveness in combat--The officer's mental frame of
- reference in which the officer can visualize victory in a
- deadly confrontation.
-
- 4) Decisiveness--The officer's ability to make rapid and
- accurate decisions when confronted with a critical
- situation.
-
- 5) Perseverance under stress--The officer's ability to
- continue to perform critical tasks mentally and physically
- when confronted with stressful situations.
-
- DISCUSSION
-
- The concept of survivability represents a dynamic set of
- behaviors that should be considered in relation to certain law
- enforcement environments. Life-threatening events associated
- with undercover operations, uniformed patrol, SWAT operations,
- and other specific hazardous law enforcement missions require
- personnel who can survive the virulent stressors associated with
- these unique operations. (11)
-
- Self-confidence in performance, training, effectiveness in
- combat, decisiveness, and perseverance under stress were
- identified in this pilot study as tantamount to law enforcement
- officer survival. However, these findings are preliminary and
- should not be considered conclusive. Further research, in the
- form of an enhancement/enrichment course offered to new FBI
- Agents in training, is planned for 1991. The data compiled
- during this course will then be analyzed and will, hopefully,
- lead to more indepth research focusing on the five behaviors
- mentioned previously that are most often associated with
- survivability. It is hoped that law enforcement officers who
- have been exposed to such training opportunities will increase
- their potential for survival in life-or-death situations. Only
- through proper training in behaviors that ensure survival can
- law enforcement prepare to meet the anticipated occupational
- challenges of the future.
-
-
- FOOTNOTES
-
- (1) Uniform Crime Reports--Law Officers Killed and
- Assaulted--1988, U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of
- Investigation, 1989.
-
- (2) T. Wolfe, The Right Stuff (New York: Bantam Books,
- 1983).
-
- (3) R.L. Helmreich and J.A. Wilhelm, "Validating
- Personality Constructs for Pilot Selection: Status Report on
- the NASA/UT Project," NASA/UT Technical Memorandum 89-3,
- Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at Austin,
- 1989.
-
- (4) G. Belenky, ed., Contemporary Studies in Combat
- Psychiatry (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987).
-
- (5) R. Gal, "Courage Under Stress," in S. Breznitz, ed.
- Stress in Israel (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company,
- 1983).
-
- (6) S.E. Hobfol, The Ecology of Stress (New York:
- Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, 1988).
-
- (7) C. Henderson, Marine Sniper (New York: Berkley Books,
- 1986).
-
- (8) I.J. Vasquez, "An Interview with Carlos Hathcock,"
- unpublished interview notes, Virginia Beach, Virginia, 1989.
-
- (9) A. Bandura, "Human Agency in Social Cognitive Theory,"
- American Psychologist, No. 44, 1989, pp. 1175-1184.
-
- (10) C.R. Skillen, Combat Shotgun Training, (Springfield,
- Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1982).
-
- (11) S. R. Band and C.A. Manuele, "Stress and Police
- Officer Job Performance: An Examination of Effective Coping
- Behavior," Police Studies, No. 10, 1987, pp. 122-131.